A Tangled Web: Learner Autonomy as a Predictor of Learner Emotions, Willingness to Communicate and Academic Achievement in Online Language Learning

Elouise Botes, Pia Resnik, Sharona Moskowitz, Jean-Marc Dewaele, Sarah Mercer, Samuel Greiff

doi:10.32038/ltrq.2025.48.02

European KnowledgeDevelopment Institute

Original Research

A Tangled Web: Learner Autonomy as a Predictor of Learner Emotions, Willingness to Communicate and Academic Achievement in Online Language Learning

Language Teaching Research Quarterly, Volume 48, Pages 10-29, https://doi.org/10.32038/ltrq.2025.48.02

Abstract
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Learner autonomy is widely acknowledged as playing a crucial role in successful language learning. However, less is known about how it functions and interacts with other key variables specifically in online settings where its role may potentially be even more significant. This study investigates the role of learner autonomy in learners’ experience of positive and negative emotions, willingness to communicate (WTC), and their academic achievement in online English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classes at the secondary level. Data were collected from 490 learners in an Austrian vocational school during 29 online EFL lessons using a web survey. The data were analysed using structural equation modeling. The results revealed that the level of learner autonomy predicted both foreign language enjoyment (FLE) (positively) and foreign language classroom anxiety (FLCA) (negatively), as well as learners’ WTC and grades (positively). Both positive and negative emotions predicted learners’ academic achievement, but only FLCA negatively predicted WTC. A mediation analysis revealed that the relationship between learner autonomy and academic achievement is mediated by learner emotions, while its relationship with WTC is mediated by FLCA. Overall, the study demonstrates the value of learner autonomy in predicting language learning success, reflected in learners’ grades and their readiness to communicate in the FL language.

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Keywords

Willingness to Communicate; Learner Autonomy; Foreign Language Enjoyment; Foreign Language Anxiety

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Author(s) Information

Elouise Botes

Elouise Botes a post-doctoral researcher in Psychology at the Cognitive Science and Assessment Institute at the University of Luxembourg, Luxembourg. She is an inter-disciplinary researcher examining the role of individual differences in language learning, using concepts from both psychology and applied linguistics in her work. She was recently awarded with the Early Career Researcher Award from the International Association for the Psychology of Language Learning and is currently on the editorial board for the Journal of Multicultural and Multilingual Development.

Pia Resnik

Pia Resnik is Professor of ELT Research and Methodology at the University College of Teacher Education, Vienna|Krems, Austria. Her research interests include all aspects surrounding multi-competent LX users of English, with a particular focus on emotions in multilingual contexts and the psychology of language learning and teaching. She has written and co-authored several publications in these areas, including the book Multilinguals’ Verbalisation and Perception of Emotions published by Multilingual Matters. She is currently serving on the leadership team of the Emotion Special Interest Group and the board of the International Association for the Psychology of Language Learning.

Sharona Moskowitz

Sharona Moskowitz is Adjunct Assistant Professor of English at City University of New York (CUNY). She earned her PhD in Applied Linguistics from Birkbeck, University of London focusing on the effects of student perceptions of teacher happiness and emotional intelligence on attitudes and motivation towards foreign language learning. Upon graduating, she served as Associate Research Fellow at Birkbeck publishing on topics such as intellectual humility and language attitudes, as well as emotional contagion in the classroom. She is currently researching how the conflict in the Middle East affects the linguistic landscape of the streets in New York City.

Jean-Marc Dewaele

Jean-Marc Dewaele is Honorary Professor at University College London and is Emeritus Professor of Applied Linguistics and Multilingualism at Birkbeck, University of London. He has published widely on emotion and individual differences in multilingualism and foreign language learning. He is General Editor of the Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. He won awards from the British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy (2013), the International Association of Language and Social Psychology (2016) and the European Second Language Association (2022). He was ranked as the 3rd most influential linguist in the world in the Stanford rankings 2024.

Sarah Mercer

Sarah Mercer is Professor of Foreign Language Teaching at the University of Graz, Austria. Her research interests focus on the psychology of the language learning and teaching experience. She has written, coauthored and coedited several books in this area including one with Tammy Gregersen on teacher well-being published by Oxford University Press and one with Giulia Sulis, Sonja Babic, and Astrid Mairitsch on language teacher wellbeing published by Multilingual Matters.

Samuel Greiff

Samuel Greiff is Professor of Educational Monitoring & Effectiveness at the Technical University of Munich (TUM). He leads the Centre for International Student Assessment (ZIB) and oversees the national implementation of the PISA study. His research centers on systemic educational issues and monitoring through large-scale international studies. His holistic approach to education considers both individual and societal factors, using AI and process data, and integrating 21st-century skills into practices. His work with studies like PISA and PIAAC provides insights for educational policy, supporting evidence-based reforms that enhance equality, effectiveness, and efficiency in education.

Acknowledgments

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Funding

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Conflict of Interests

No, there are no conflicting interests.

Open Access

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