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Although cognitive models of writing have long emphasized the importance of planning, formulation, and revision, little is known about how adult L2 writers distribute these subprocesses during real-time composition. This study addresses that gap by investigating the temporal and spatial characteristics of writing behaviors in a timed argumentative task. Sixteen Spanish university students participated in a 35-minute English writing task, recorded with Inputlog. Writing events were automatically classified using a VBA-based system that integrates pause duration, pause location, and event context to identify underlying subprocesses. The analysis examined how these subprocesses evolved over time, how they related to linguistic pause locations, and how pausing behavior differed across subprocesses when measured as pauses per minute, mean pause duration, and relative pause frequency. Results indicated that subprocess distribution remained relatively stable throughout the session, but clear associations emerged between pause location and subprocess type, for instance, within-word and before-word pauses were linked to formulation, while sentence- and paragraph-initial pauses were associated with planning. Differences in pause duration and frequency also reflected distinct cognitive demands, with planning marked by longer pauses and revision by shorter, more frequent ones. The results support the classification system and shed light on cognitive effort in L2 writing, with potential applications for feedback and task design.

frsl.2025.03.02.pdf

Original Research 

frsl.2025.03.02 .xml

From pauses to processes: Automating the classification of L2 writing processes from keystroke logs

Learning a second language (L2) is dependent upon numerous external and internal factors, among which motivation plays a relevant role. In fact, motivation has been recognized as crucial in the L2 learning process (Ushioda, 2012). Such has been its importance that interest in L2 motivation has led to the development of theories such as the L2 motivational construct, and the L2 motivational self system (D&ouml;rnyei, 2005, 2009). Nevertheless, despite the academic focus on L2 learning motivation (D&ouml;rnyei &amp; Ushioda, 2013), the impact of additional L2 lessons on students already engaged in formal L2 instruction at an official educational level (e.g., Higher Education) remaines vastly underexplored. Thus, this study aims to bridge this gap by analyzing the differences between 118 undergraduate EFL students who attended extra L2 lessons and those who did not. Considering the complex nature of the motivational construct, a Bayesian network analysis was used, categorizing motivations into two modules based on attendance of additional L2 lessons. This allowed us to observe the different factors of motivation as a whole construct, and not individually. The findings revealed that students who attended extra lessons are internally motivated toward self-improvement, whereas those who do not attend extra L2 lessons are influenced by external pressures and career aspirations.

ltrq.2024.42.11.pdf

ltrq.2024.42.11 .xml

Mapping Motivational Networks in EFL: Exploring the Impact of Additional L2 Lessons